英文论文写作常用句子

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篇1：英文论文写作常用句子

英文论文写作常用句子 -文秘文书

Beginningl     In this paper, we focus on the need for l     This paper proceeds as follow.l     The structure of the paper is as follows.l     In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related conceptsl     To begin with we will provide a brief background on the Introductionl     This will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the problem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are defined.l     Details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections.l     In the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various situations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely possibility model is proposed; then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochastic arrivals and non‑fuzzy service rule is studied; lastly, fuzzy service rule are considered.Reviewl     This review is followed by an introduction.  l     A brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is presented in Section 2.l     In the next section a brief view of the .... is given.  l     In the next section, a short review of ... is given with special regard to ...l     Section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx.l     Section 1.1 briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action, while 1.2 looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and outlines the need for development of possibility methods.Bodyl     Section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for its importance.l     Section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the FLC decision‑making logic.l     Section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes xxxl     Section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, natural language understanding.l     Section 2 explains how flexibility which often ... can be expressed in terms of fuzzy time‑windowl     Section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used in the ...l     Section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the ..and also discusses how to evaluate system performance.l     Section 3 describes a new measure of xx.l     Section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in the analysis of xx.l     Section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of human decision.l     Section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzy decision rulesl     The main idea of the FLC is described in Section 3 while Section 4 describes the xx strategies.l     Section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposed model.l     Section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy set‑based approach to cost variance investigation.l     Section 4 gives a specific example of xxx.l     Section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memory process.l     Section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of Section 2 and 3.l     Section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of xx and illustrate its use on experimental data.l     Section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model ..l     Section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work.l     Section 6 illustrate the model with an example.l     Various ways of fuzzification and the reasons for their choice are discussed very briefly in Section 2.l     In Section 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole model of human DM systeml     In Section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a ... scheme must satisfy.l     In Section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniqueness theorems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain of discourse is order‑dense.l     In Section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empirical study currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to construct membership functions.l     In Section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kinds of inference experiments...This Sectionl     In this section, the characteristics and environment under which MRP is designed are described.l     We will provide in this section basic terminobsp;   sources of additional information on ... are listedl     systematic and rationally structured formatl     the basis on which a  range of ...operations can be established is shownl     THE   basic philosophy / principles of / key element / general hypothesis / candidate list of / concept of  ... has attracted wide interest /  function is concerned with / heart / impact / nature / role / task of / kernel functions l     the number of parts needed to l     the above statement means thatl     the output data is passed to l     the proposed method /  underlying principlel     the recommendations made in this report, if implemented, shouldl     this information resides inl     this process is composed of ... different ... operationl     along with the use of l     concerning general aspects ofl     due tol     for later use in generating...,l     in turn,l     IT IS     believed / noted / assumed / suggested / shown / quite evident / appears / implies that / intended for / of no important tol     it can be claimed/concluded thatl     it demonstrates the decisions required of l     it also provides information to ..l     it becomes essential to l     let ... be the probability thatl     once... is written, it is compiled into...l     suppose it is observlogies and notations which are necessary for the understanding of subsequent results.Next Sectionl     The next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computer implementation of such fuzzy logic statements.l     However, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practical applications the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next section.l     The three components will be described in the next two section, and an example of xx analysis of a computer information system will then illustrate their use.l     We can interpret the results of Experiments I and II as in the following sections.l     The next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful for arguments based on xxSummaryl     This paper concludes with a discussion of future research consideration in section 5.l     Section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation.l     Section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research.l     Section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of the paper.l     Finally, conclusions and future work are summarizedl     The basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions are drawn.l     Section 7 is the conclusion of the paper.Chapter 0. Abstractl     A basic problem in the design of xx is presented by the choice of a xx rate for the measurement of experimental variables.l     This paper examines a new measure of xx in xx based on fuzzy mathematics which overcomes the difficulties found in other xx measures.l     This paper describes a system for the analysis of the xx.l     The method involves the construction of xx from fuzzy relations.l     The procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision.l     The technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile xx algorithms.l     The usefulness of xx is also considered.l     A brief methodology used in xx is discussed.l     The analysis is useful in xx and xx problem.l     A model is developed for a xx analysis using fuzzy matrices.l     Algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a xx are presented and justified.l     The use of the method is discussed and an example is given.l     Results of an experimental applications of this xx analysis procedure are given to illustrate the proposed technique.l     This paper analyses problems in l     This paper outlines the functions carried out by ...l     This paper includes an illustration of the ...l     This paper provides an overview and information useful for approachingl     Emphasis is placed on the construction of a criterion function by which the xx in achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are evaluated.l     The main emphasis is placed on the problem of xxl     Our proposed model is verified through experimental study.l     The experimental results reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phases of : xx,xxl     The compatibility of a project in terms of cost, and xx are likewise represented by linguistic variables.l     A didactic example is included to illustrate the computational procedureChapter 1. IntroductionTimel     Over the course of the past 30 years, .. has emerged form intuitive l     Technological revolutions have recently hit the industrial worldl     The advent of ... systems for  has had a significant impact on the l     The development of ... is exploredl     During the past decade, the theory of fuzzy sets has developed in a variety of directions,l     The concept of xx was investigated quite intensively in recent yearsl     There has been a turning point in ... methodology in accordance with the advent of ...l     A major concern in ... today is to continue to improve...l     A xx is a latecomer in the part representation arena.l     At the time of this writing, there is still no standard way of xxl     Although a lot of effort is being spent on improving these weaknesses, the efficient and effective method has yet to be developed.l     The pioneer work can be traced to xx [1965].l     To date,  none of the methods developed is perfect and all are far from ready to be used in commercial systems.Objective / Goal / Purposel     The purpose of the inference engine can be outlined as follows:l     The ultimate goal of the xx system is to allow the non‑experts to utilize the existing knowledge in the area of manual handling of loads, and to provide intelligent, computer‑aided instruction for xxx.l     The paper concerns the development of a xxl     The scope of this research lies inl     The main theme of the paper is the application of rule‑based decision making.l     These objectives are to be met with such thoroughness and confidence as to permit ...l     The objectives of the  ... operations study are as follows:l     The primary purpose/consideration/objective ofl     The ultimate goal of this concept is to providel     The main objective of such a ... system is tol     The aim of this paper is to provide methods to construct such probability distribution.l    In order to achieve these objectives, an xx must meet the following requirements:l     In order to take advantage of their similarityl     more research is still required before final goal of ... can be completedl     In this trial, the objective is to generate...l     for the sake of concentrating on ... research issuesl     A major goal of this report is to extend the utilization of a recently developed procedure for the xx.l     For an illustrative purpose, four well‑known OR problems are studied in presence of fuzzy data: xx.l     A major thrust of the paper is to discuss approaches and strategies for structuring ..methodsl     This illustration points out the need to specifyl     The ultimate goal is both descriptive and prescriptive.l     Chapter 2. Literature Reviewl     A wealth of information is to be found in the statistics literature, for example, regarding xxl     A considerable amount of research has been done .. during the last decadel     A great number of studies report on the treatment of uncertainties associated with xx.l     There is considerable amount of literature on planningl     However, these studies do not provide much attention to undertainty in xx.l     Since then, the subject has been extensively explored and it is still under investigation as well in methodological aspects as in concrete applications.l     Many research studies have been carried out on this topic.l     Problem of xx draw recently more and more attention of system analysis.l     Attempts to resolve this dilemma have resulted in the development of l     Many complex processes unfortunately, do not yield to this design procedure and have, therefore, not yet been automated.l     Most of the methods developed so far are deterministic and /or probabilistic in nature.l     The central issue in all these studies is to l     The problem of xx has been studied by other investigators, however, these studies have been based upon classical statistical approaches.l     Applied ... techniques tol     Characterized the ... system asl     Developed an algorithm tol     Developed a system called ... whichl     Uses an iterative algorithm to deducel     Emphasized the need tol     Identifies six key issues surrounding high technologyl     A comprehensive study of the .. has been undertaken l     Much work has been reported recently in these filedl     Proposedl     Presentedl     State thatl     Point out that the problem of l     Describedl     Illustratedl     Indicatedl     Has shown / showedl     Addressl     Highlightsl     A study on ...was done / developed by []l     Previous work, such as [] and [], deal only withl     The approach taken by [] isl     The system developed by [] consistsl     A paper relevant to this research was published by []l     []'s model requires consideration of ..l     []' model draws attention to evolution in human developmentl     []'s model focuses on...l     Little research has been conducted in applying ... tol     The published information that is relevant to this research...l     This study further shows thatl     Their work is based on the principle of l     More history of ... can be found in xx et al. [1979].l     Studies have been completed to establishedl     The ...studies  indicated that l     Though application of xx in the filed of xx has proliferated in recent years, effort in analyzing xx, especially xx, is lacking.Problem / Issue / Questionl     Unfortunately, real-world engineering problems such as manufacturing planning do not fit well with this narrowly defined model.  They tend to span broad activities and require consideration of multiple aspects.l     Remedy / solve / alleviate these problemsl     ... is a difficult problem, yet to be adequately resolvedl     Two major problems have yet to be addressedl     An unanswered questionl     This problem in essence involves using x to obtain a solution.l     An additional research issue to be tackled is ....l     Some important issues in developing a ... system are discussedl     The three prime issues can be summarized:l     The situation leads to the problem of how to determine the ...l     There have been many attempts to l     It is expected to be serious barrier to l     It offers a simple solution in a limited domain for a complex problem.l     There are several ways to get around this problem.l     As difficult as it seems to be, xx is by no means new.l     The problem is to recognize xx from a design representation.l     A xx problem can trace its roots to xx.l     xx [1987] used a heuristic approach to simplify the complexity of the problem.l     Several problems are associated with them.l     Although some progress has been made in this area, at least two major obstacles must be overcome before a fully automated system can be realized.l     Most problems in practice are complicatedl     More problem surface here.l     Hamper effort toward a xx systeml     In order to overcome the limitations due to incomplete and imprecise xx knowledge, a xx program has been developed, which bases its knowledge upon the statistical analysis of a sample population of xxl     The above difficulties are real challenges faced by researchers attempting to developl     This type of mapping raises no controversy to the issue of membership function determination.l     However, attempts to quantify the xx have met both theoretical and empirical problems.l     It has become apparent that in order to apply this new methodological framework to real‑world problems and data, we have to pay attention to the problems of xx and xx.Chapter 3. Proposed methodologyAssumptionl     In the case when the assumption of a xx seems to be too restrictive or inadequate, the formulation with Fuzzy termination time, i.e. given by a fuzzy set in the space of control stages, may be applied.l     We assume here the fuzzy constraints to be state‑dependent, and the fuzzy goal to be the same for all the control states, xx, which stems from the problem's nature.l     An approach to the solution of this problem is presented under the assumption that the sampling rate Decision can be made prior to the execution of the experiment, as opposed to being made while the experiment is in progress.l     Another assumption made above is that there are precise odds at which the expert is indifferent.l     Main simplifying assumptions are:l     This, in our view, is a questionable assumption.Outline / Structure / Modulel     An outline of the researchl     Information is incorporated within the schemel     Is built into ... structurel     A nice modular structure.l     The principles of ... are applied as modularized criteriaClassificationl     A xx system comprises three main components:l     Must decompose the original .. into a set of ..l     Consists of the following steps:l     This is summarized in the following steps:l     Can be broadly classified into the following areas:l     Can be characterized by its function of effectively processing thel     Can allow further breadth of application of ...into morel     The following steps should be followedl     xx can be classified by a different ways.l     Based on the xx, one may classify xx into the following:l     This catalog may change due to wear, breakage, and purchasing.Systeml     Unlike many conventional program, expert systems do not usually deal with problem for which there is clearly a right or wrong answer.l     The system consists of both ... and ...l     The system has a hierarchical modular architecture organized on three levels.l     expert system domains are area of expertisel     To develop a xx system for xx, the following factors must be considered:l     The system has been developed / designed to determinel     The system has proven to be able to l     The domain in which an expert system operates is a particular domainl     The system comprises a ... withl     The system is [feature-oriented ] / based on the ... techniquel     The system environment must be relatively stablel     The system is utilized to generate, load, store, update and retrieve ...l     The development of a xx system has two stages:  xx stage and xx stage.l     The most essential part of .. system is the ...l     The successful developments in ESs have made them an important tool in the development of l     An automated system was developed forl     In this case, the system can be considered to be generative.l     An interactive automatic ... systeml     A .. is commonly thought of as a truly integrated .. systeml     Should be capable of being generated from a ... systeml     xx is an important part of the integrated system.l     The model consists of four rule bases, each of which addresses a separate problem in the hierarchy of scheduling decision.l     The rule bases are linked to each other in a chin‑like manner in the sense that the consequent of one rule base constitutes a part of the antecedent of the next rule base.l     The rule base consists of all possible combinations of the linguistic terms associated with the linguistic variable of the antecedent of a rule.Computer Systeml     The system has been implemented using Prolog language in an MS‑DOS environment.  Prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.l     The current version of the xx program when compiled with WATFOR77 results in an executable code of about 270K bytes.  Typical run time, when run on a XX computer (an IBM compatible machine) operating at 4.77 Mhz with 640K RAM, ranges from 10 min to 2h, depending on the size (or complexity) of the problem.l     Time consuming procedures have been implemented in C‑language and directly linked to the Prolog environment.l     The xx process, once the xx's data has been entered, requires approximately 180 seconds.l     It should be noted that the computation was done with a 20 Hhz, 80386‑based microcomputer equipped with a 80387 math co‑processor.l     The computer programs used for the analyses, one based on the xx method and the other based on the new method, were written in FORTRAN with a compiler that supports the math co‑processor.l     Lisp, Prolog give maximum flexibility but also maximizes development time.l     Internal representation is the way a model is represented in the computer.l     An interactive menu-driven procedure is used in this studyl     Shell can be develop very fast at the cost of time fairly severe limitations.l     While there is no measurable saving of time for the case involving five criteria, the saving is dramatic for the case involving 10 criteria -- the computation time reduces from 10 hr 40 min to about 1 min.l     This combination is being implemented in an objected‑oriented programming environment (Smalltalk‑80 system) to solve problems encountered in construction xxx.Method / Approach / Study / Process Model / Equation /Algorithm / Rule / Formula / Techniquel     A discussion is presented of a problem-solving systeml     To improve the efficiency of the method, the following approach may be applied.l     In order to an investigation was made to find the causes of thel     Although large collections of rules and equations have been complied, none are generally accepted l     This approach will be explained and discussed thoroughly in the body of the report.l     This can be accomplished byl     This algorithm to compute the total cost can be described step by step as follows:l     The above preliminary analysis has provided important informationl     Various methods have been proposed for selecting an optimum...l     These concepts have been applied to l     On the basis of the concept mentioned above,l     This can be achieved byl     This fact suggests that a new conceptl     This was accomplished by taking ...l     The preparatory stage is very time consuming process.l     Test are performed for validity, completeness, and compatibilityl     There is little hope of achieving successful ...l     There has been an increasing awareness of the potential of using most ..so far made have not taken this approach, with the exception ofl     Only a few studies can be found.l     It is a very tedious process to go throughl     It is only when .. has been completed that .. may be effectedl     The entire interpretation process is conducted in one's head.l     These approaches are sometimes very tedious.l     Several techniques can be usedl     A polynomial parametric model can be written as [the following]/[follows]:l     A xx model is constructed/formulated using xx.l     A xx model represents an xx by its xx.l     A process decision model captures the logic essential tol     From the equation above, xx is equal to the summation of xx times the ...l     The validity of a xx model can be checked using Euler's formula.l     Given a model, one can mathematically determine whether ... or ...l     Equations for xx need to be derived and implemented in the system.l     A number of heuristic rules have been developed forl     Optimum .. techniques can be made more reliable by ... so thatl     An algorithm based on the characteristic ... is used to determinel     Euler's formula states the following:l     The completed model should agree with the formula.l     For manufacturing purposes, a detailed and precise model of the object is necessaryl     Engineering design models are very well defined; therefore, l     To keep the domain narrow enough to be implementable, yet wide enough to be useful.Point of Viewl     from an implementation standpoint,l     From the point of view of this application,l     From this point of view, Zadeh suggested an inference rule named xxx (CRI for short).l    Information is the meaningful interpretation and correlation of some aggregation of data in order to allow one to make decisions.l     From a practical point of view, the computational aspects of an FLC require a simplification of the fuzzy control algorithm.l     The use of a hammer to insert screws, although partly effective, tends to distort, destroy, and generally defeat the purpose of using a screw [Kusiak AI Implications for CIM p.129]Justificationl     We choose the so called xx in our experiment because it has received wide acceptance and canl     Prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.l     The rationale behind this is that it can be much easier for an estimator to rate a cost as high than to attempt to place a dollar value on the estimate.l     This strategy has been widely used in fuzzy control applications since it is natural and easy to implement.l     A function definition expresses the membership function of a fuzzy set in a functional form, typically a bell‑shaped function, etc.  Such functions are used in FLC because they lead themselves to manipulation through the use of fuzzy arithmetic.l     It should be noted that in our daily life most of the information on which our decisions are based is linguistic rather than numerical in nature.  Seen in this perspective, fuzzy control rules provide a natural framework for the characterization of human behavior and decisions analysis.  l     Many experts have found that fuzzy control rules provide a convenient way to express their domain knowledge.  This explains why most FLCs are based on the knowledge and experience which are expressed in the language of fuzzy “if‑the” rule.Chapter 4. ExamplesExample/ Datal     The data used in the following example was taken from an experiment in which xx was measured between x and x using a xx technique.l     The data consists of over xx measurements.l     An example of xx is discussed and the control rules of xx are compared with a xxl     Examples of complex processes to which this technique may be applied are xx, xx, etc.l     The following example is constructed only for the purpose of illustrating the computational procedure discussed.l     This example clearly demonstrates that the profile of an individual xx, or a very small group of xx, with no enough data to be studied statistically, can be meaningfully analyzed by fuzzy possibilistic methods.l     There is no space here to go into detail on all these methods, but deserve a mention and the bibliography will point to detailed references for those wishing this level of detail.l     Note that the golf ball spotting example is used throughout the paper.Comparisonsl     As well, the pros and cons of these representations from a process planning point of view will be discussed.l     The method of using xx to implement xx described by Zadeh (1973) appeared more suitablel     As discussed [in the previous section]/[preciously],Relationl     We can not invert F' directly because it defines a many-to-one mapping.l     The relationships appear very complicatel     Lifting tasks involve complex and imprecise relationship between the task variables and the human operator's characteristics.l     These methods are based on the relationship between ... and ...l     The fundamental concept of a fuzzy rating language is that we can establish a relationship among terms such as high, medium, and low, and then modify these relationships.l     This article will thus mention the latter as well as the former.l     The former two bear a close relation to a fuzzy Cartesian product.Importancel     The emphasis is on an implementation of a general approach to rule based decision making.Consideration / Attentionl     Careful evaluation is necessary to ensure l     Such a formulation does not change further considerations.l     Considerable attention has been paid tol     Attention should be paid to an important finding of this investigation.l     Caution should be exercised in this process to avoid ...l    Primary consideration is given to ... components, though others can be accommodatedl     After ... has been defined by ..., a carefully analysis is carried out/performed to determinel     A number of factors such as ...need to be taken into consideration before making the appropriate decision.l     It should be noted thatl     It is important to point out that ...l     These considerations have heightened interest in the possibility of providing ...l     We should stress the fundamental importance of the xxChapter 5. Results.Advantages / Disadvantagel     One of the major advantages of this new measure of xx is that it can be applied to the experimental study ofl     One advantage of using a .. is the ease of preparing it.l     The xx system is versatilel     It has a very fast decision making processl     All the algorithms involve mostly logical operations.l  It can be easily and without additional cost implemented in a microprocessor‑based environment.l     It can reduce the waste of designing from scratch.l     The advantages of using a xx to represent xx are the following:l     However, xx is not without its shortcomings.l     In most cases, the xxx shows an improvement over the existing xxx.l     Compared to the existing xx, the impacts of the xx are generally reduced by 5% to 9%.l     The “best case” results shows a savings of 6% to 9%.l     Most of the existing works based on xx approach can only recognize a xx .l     Most of the above methods are computational expansive and limited to xx.l     Some other advantages of xx are the following:l     The problem is the limitation of this method to a limited domain of parts.l     It proved limited in application because it demanded precision in system modeling that was impossible in practice.l     There are advantages to be gained in the structuring of costs and benefits, the use of xx, l     The disadvantages of this method are also disadvantages of conventional xx approaches.l     This combines the best features of both techniquesl     Hopefully, this tool can be as the reference framework of for developing a xx platform, and helping the administration, marketing, and knowledge management activities in virtual communities.Resultsl     An improvement on the result shown above can be made by based on the data providedl     Discussion of these theories is beyond the scope of this reviewl     Based on the information contained in thisl     The result can be categorized into nine classesl     The results are illustrated by an examplel     The experimental results for each xx time are reported in Table 2.l     From the results obtained so far, it seem thatl     Because of the inaccuracy of the ..., a conclusion cannot be drawn as l     Although much effort has been made to., this reality is far from completion.l     The results indicate that the total benefits are higher than the total costs.l     Their results may then serve as guidelines for lower level models, less fuzzy and more detailed.Chapter 6. Conclusionl     From the discussion, one may conclude that ...l     Form the above discussion, the conclusion can be reached that l     The conclusions drawn are also validl     In conclusion to this, it becomes obvious that the problem of xx lies not only in...l     We have attempted to introduce some concepts associated with a theory of xx based on fuzzy sets.l     Considerable more work, hopefully, will be done in this areal     A fuzzy set procedure is proposed to solve xx selection problems interwoven with imprecise datal     Employing the compositional rule of inference, the assessment of the xx compatibility in achieving prescribed xx projectiles in any level of the hierarchy is made possible.l    This paper has presented a theoretical and experimental study of the xx process and xx concept.l    The experimental research results will hopefully serve as useful feedback information for improvements for xx work.l    The scope of this contribution was to introduce a xx method.l    In general, fuzzy sets theory provides an alternative foundation for xx analysis in a fuzzy environment.Future Researchl     Thus, first extension of the approach could be, l     Present some cues for a further approach from Fuzzy Sets Theory application to l     Some improvements to the scheduling aspect of the model may be brought through additional levels in the hierarchy for more detailed representation of the scheduling activity.Tables and Figuresl     Figure 7-1 sketches these relationships.l     The graphical representation of these functions is shown in Figure 1.l     The xx may be depicted as in Figure 1.l     Figure x shows the schematic diagram of  the l     Figure 1 though 2 provide a ... thatl     the architecture of this expert system for .... is illustrated in Figure 2.l     Figure 2 gives the outline of an ... systeml     Table shows thel     as shown in Table 1 and 2l     This concept is illustrated in Figure 2l     At the top of Table xx are shown two blocks of data. l     Each table or matrix has constructs xx through xx as row‑headings, xx through xx as column‑headings.l     A table of .. is developed and significant recommendations are made.CONJUGATIONTo Indicate Additionl     additionally, again, also, and then, as can be easily understood, besides, equally important, especially, finally, for the same reason, first, further, furthermore, in addition, last, likewise, moreover, next, second, third, too, evidently, obviously, roughly speaking, broadly speakingTo Indicate Cause and Effectl     accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, hence, in short, otherwise, then, therefore, thus, trulyTo indicate Comparisonl     in a like manner, likewise, similarly , alternativelyTo Indicate Concessionl     after all, although this may be true, at the same time, even though, even so , I admit, naturally, of courseTo Indicate Contrastl     and yet, at the same time, but, for all that, however, yet, in fact, in contrast, in the real life, in spite of, nevertheless, notwithstanding, normally, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, traditionally, rather, unfortunately,To Indicate Time Relationshipsl     after a short time, afterwards, as indicated earlier, as long as, as soon as, at last, at length, at the moment, at that time, at the same time, before, earlier, currently, immediately, in the meantime, in recent years, lately, later, meanwhile, often, of late, presently, recently, soon, shortly, since, thereupon, temporarily, therefore, until, when, whileTo Indicate Special Features or Examplesl     for example, for instance, incidentally, indeed, in fact, in other words, in particular, in practice, specifically, that is, to illustrate, in this respect, theoretically, as mentioned before / aboveTo Indicate Summaryl     in brief, in conclusion, in short, in summary, on the whole, to conclude, in general, to summarize, to sum up, as a result, ultimately,VERB PHASEl     build a .. modell     build up the key linkl     began a new era in ...l     can be     regarded as / achieved / used to/for / found / obtained throughl     can result inl     carries out  ... tasks l     production information in order to simultaneouslyl     contains all information necessary to describel     do not make use of production informationl     deals withl     end with failurel     fetch the information from the model directlyl     has great potential / yet to be resolved / spurred the development of  / been recognized as l     BE   aimed at / built up / carried out by / essentially concerned with / considered to be the key technology / associated with each feature of a composite component / cable of / currently implemented for / demonstrated by an example / finally reached / made equal to / equivalent to  / more suitable to / oriented to / interpreted as / pointed out / potentially of great benefit in the complex task of  / shown in  / used to effectively guide the searchl     makes use of l     make upl     meets the needs of real life production,/ the current demands placed upon itl     must be justifiedl     point outl     play an important rolel     relates tol     rely on l     satisfy the needsl     determine the total requirements for the ...l     uses ... as a key to search for...l     without relying onl     will be available/ performed/ overlookedNOUN PHASEl     a basic technical function of l     a critical needl     a key / principle feature ofl     a substantial impact onl     an intensive review was conductedl     an increasing need for expanding the application of ....l     an important component / function / aspect / issuel     each rule is numbered in sequencel     each of these involvesl     for this calculation, it is necessary to definel     in the physical environment / integration ofl     in the reality of situations where …l     many aspects of l     most past efforts have been spent on ...l     common sense to a well studied and documented technical field.l &n

篇2：英文论文写作常用句子

英文论文写作常用句子

beginningl in this paper, we focus on the need for l this paper proceeds as follow.l the structure of the paper is as follows.l in this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related conceptsl to begin with we will provide a brief background on the introductionl this will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the problem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are defined.l details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections.l in the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various situations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely possibility model is proposed; then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochastic arrivals and nonfuzzy service rule is studied; lastly, fuzzy service rule are considered.reviewl this review is followed by an introduction. l a brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is presented in section 2.l in the next section a brief view of the .... is given. l in the next section, a short review of ... is given with special regard to ...l section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx.l section 1.1 briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action, while 1.2 looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and outlines the need for development of possibility methods.bodyl section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for its importance.l section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the flc decisionmaking logic.l section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes xxxl section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, natural language understanding.l section 2 explains how flexibility which often ... can be expressed in terms of fuzzy timewindowl section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used in the ...l section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the ..and also discusses how to evaluate system performance.l section 3 describes a new measure of xx.l section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in the analysis of xx.l section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of human decision.l section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzy decision rulesl the main idea of the flc is described in section 3 while section 4 describes the xx strategies.l section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposed model.l section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy setbased approach to cost variance investigation.l section 4 gives a specific example of xxx.l section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memory process.l section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of section 2 and 3.l section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of xx and illustrate its use on experimental data.l section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model ..l section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work.l section 6 illustrate the model with an example.l various ways of fuzzification and the reasons for their choice are discussed very briefly in section 2.l in section 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole model of human dm systeml in section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a ... scheme must satisfy.l in section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniqueness theorems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain of discourse is orderdense.l in section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empirical study currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to construct membership functions.l in section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kinds of inference experiments...this sectionl in this section, the characteristics and environment under which mrp is designed are described.l we will provide in this section basic terminologies and notations which are necessary for the understanding of subsequent results.next sectionl the next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computer implementation of such fuzzy logic statements.l however, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practical applications the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next section.l the three components will be described in the next two section, and an example of xx analysis of a computer information system will then illustrate their use.l we can interpret the results of experiments i and ii as in the following sections.l the next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful for arguments based on xxsummaryl this paper concludes with a discussion of future research consideration in section 5.l section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation.l section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research.l section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of the paper.l finally, conclusions and future work are summarizedl the basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions are drawn.l section 7 is the conclusion of the paper.chapter 0. abstractl a basic problem in the design of xx is presented by the choice of a xx rate for the measurement of experimental variables.l this paper examines a new measure of xx in xx based on fuzzy mathematics which overcomes the difficulties found in other xx measures.l this paper describes a system for the analysis of the xx.l the method involves the construction of xx from fuzzy relations.l the procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision.l the technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile xx algorithms.l the usefulness of xx is also considered.l a brief methodology used in xx is discussed.l the analysis is useful in xx and xx problem.l a model is developed for a xx analysis using fuzzy matrices.l algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a xx are presented and justified.l the use of the method is discussed and an example is given.l results of an experimental applications of this xx analysis procedure are given to illustrate the proposed technique.l this paper analyses problems in l this paper outlines the functions carried out by ...l this paper includes an illustration of the ...l this paper provides an overview and information useful for approachingl emphasis is placed on the construction of a criterion function by which the xx in achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are evaluated.l the main emphasis is placed on the problem of xxl our proposed model is verified through experimental study.l the experimental results reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phases of : xx,xxl the compatibility of a project in terms of cost, and xx are likewise represented by linguistic variables.l a didactic example is included to illustrate the computational procedurechapter 1. introductiontimel over the course of the past 30 years, .. has emerged form intuitive l technological revolutions have recently hit the industrial worldl the advent of ... systems for has had a significant impact on the l the development of ... is exploredl during the past decade, the theory of fuzzy sets has developed in a variety of directions,l the concept of xx was investigated quite intensively in recent yearsl there has been a turning point in ... methodology in accordance with the advent of ...l a major concern in ... today is to continue to improve...l a xx is a latecomer in the part representation arena.l at the time of this writing, there is still no standard way of xxl although a lot of effort is being spent on improving these weaknesses, the efficient and effective method has yet to be developed.l the pioneer work can be traced to xx [1965].l to date, none of the methods developed is perfect and all are far from ready to be used in commercial systems.objective / goal / purposel the purpose of the inference engine can be outlined as follows:l the ultimate goal of the xx system is to allow the nonexperts to

篇3：英文论文写作常用句子

英文论文写作常用句子

beginningl     in this paper, we focus on the need for l     this paper proceeds as follow.l     the structure of the paper is as follows.l     in this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related conceptsl     to begin with we will provide a brief background on the introductionl     this will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the problem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are defined.l     details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections.l     in the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various situations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely possibility model is proposed; then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochastic arrivals and non‑fuzzy service rule is studied; lastly, fuzzy service rule are considered.reviewl     this review is followed by an introduction.  l     a brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is presented in section 2.l     in the next section a brief view of the .... is given.  l     in the next section, a short review of ... is given with special regard to ...l     section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx.l     section 1.1 briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action, while 1.2 looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and outlines the need for development of possibility methods.bodyl     section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for its importance.l     section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the flc decision‑making logic.l     section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes xxxl     section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, natural language understanding.l     section 2 explains how flexibility which often ... can be expressed in terms of fuzzy time‑windowl     section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used in the ...l     section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the ..and also discusses how to evaluate system performance.l     section 3 describes a new measure of xx.l     section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in the analysis of xx.l     section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of human decision.l     section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzy decision rulesl     the main idea of the flc is described in section 3 while section 4 describes the xx strategies.l     section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposed model.l     section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy set‑based approach to cost variance investigation.l     section 4 gives a specific example of xxx.l     section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memory process.l     section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of section 2 and 3.l     section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of xx and illustrate its use on experimental data.l     section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model ..l     section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work.l     section 6 illustrate the model with an example.l     various ways of fuzzification and the reasons for their choice are discussed very briefly in section 2.l     in section 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole model of human dm systeml     in section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a ... scheme must satisfy.l     in section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniqueness theorems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain of discourse is order‑dense.l     in section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empirical study currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to construct membership functions.l     in section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kinds of inference experiments...this sectionl     in this section, the characteristics and environment under which mrp is designed are described.l     we will provide in this section basic terminologies and notations which are necessary for the understanding of subsequent results.next sectionl     the next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computer implementation of such fuzzy logic statements.l     however, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practical applications the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next section.l     the three components will be described in the next two section, and an example of xx analysis of a computer information system will then illustrate their use.l     we can interpret the results of experiments i and ii as in the following sections.l     the next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful for arguments based on xxsummaryl     this paper concludes with a discussion of future research consideration in section 5.l     section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation.l     section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research.l     section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of the paper.l     finally, conclusions and future work are summarizedl     the basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions are drawn.l     section 7 is the conclusion of the paper.chapter 0. abstractl     a basic problem in the design of xx is presented by the choice of a xx rate for the measurement of experimental variables.l     this paper examines a new measure of xx in xx based on fuzzy mathematics which overcomes the difficulties found in other xx measures.l     this paper describes a system for the analysis of the xx.l     the method involves the construction of xx from fuzzy relations.l     the procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision.l     the technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile xx algorithms.l     the usefulness of xx is also considered.l     a brief methodology used in xx is discussed.l     the analysis is useful in xx and xx problem.l     a model is developed for a xx analysis using fuzzy matrices.l     algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a xx are presented and justified.l     the use of the method is discussed and an example is given.l     results of an experimental applications of this xx analysis procedure are given to illustrate the proposed technique.l     this paper analyses problems in l     this paper outlines the functions carried out by ...l     this paper includes an illustration of the ...l&nb

篇4：英文论文写作常用句子

英文论文写作常用句子 -论文

Beginningl     In this paper, we focus on the need for l     This paper proceeds as follow.l     The structure of the paper is as follows.l     In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related conceptsl     To begin with we will provide a brief background on the Introductionl     This will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the problem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are defined.l     Details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections.l     In the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various situations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely possibility model is proposed; then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochastic arrivals and non‑fuzzy service rule is studied; lastly, fuzzy service rule are considered.Reviewl     This review is followed by an introduction.  l     A brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is presented in Section 2.l     In the next section a brief view of the .... is given.  l     In the next section, a short review of ... is given with special regard to ...l     Section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx.l     Section 1.1 briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action, while 1.2 looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and outlines the need for development of possibility methods.Bodyl     Section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for its importance.l     Section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the FLC decision‑making logic.l     Section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes xxxl     Section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, natural language understanding.l     Section 2 explains how flexibility which often ... can be expressed in terms of fuzzy time‑windowl     Section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used in the ...l     Section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the ..and also discusses how to evaluate system performance.l     Section 3 describes a new measure of xx.l     Section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in the analysis of xx.l     Section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of human decision.l     Section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzy decision rulesl     The main idea of the FLC is described in Section 3 while Section 4 describes the xx strategies.l     Section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposed model.l     Section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy set‑based approach to cost variance investigation.l     Section 4 gives a specific example of xxx.l     Section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memory process.l     Section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of Section 2 and 3.l     Section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of xx and illustrate its use on experimental data.l     Section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model ..l     Section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work.l     Section 6 illustrate the model with an example.l     Various ways of fuzzification and the reasons for their choice are discussed very briefly in Section 2.l     In Section 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole model of human DM systeml     In Section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a ... scheme must satisfy.l     In Section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniqueness theorems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain of discourse is order‑dense.l     In Section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empirical study currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to construct membership functions.l     In Section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kinds of inference experiments...This Sectionl     In this section, the characteristics and environment under which MRP is designed are described.l     We will provide in this section basic terminologies and notations which are necessary for the understanding of subsequent results.Next Sectionl     The next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computer implementation of such fuzzy logic statements.l     However, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practical applications the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next section.l     The three components will be described in the next two section, and an example of xx analysis of a computer information system will then illustrate their use.l     We can interpret the results of Experiments I and II as in the following sections.l     The next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful for arguments based on xxSummaryl     This paper concludes with a discussion of future research consideration in section 5.l     Section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation.l     Section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research.l     Section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of the paper.l     Finally, conclusions and future work are summarizedl     The basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions are drawn.l     Section 7 is the conclusion of the paper.Chapter 0. Abstractl     A basic problem in the design of xx is presented by the choice of a xx rate for the measurement of experimental variables.l     This paper examines a new measure of xx in xx based on fuzzy mathematics which overcomes the difficulties found in other xx measures.l     This paper describes a system for the analysis of the xx.l     The method involves the construction of xx from fuzzy relations.l     The procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision.l     The technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile xx algorithms.l     The usefulness of xx is also considered.l     A brief methodology used in xx is discussed.l     The analysis is useful in xx and xx problem.l     A model is developed for a xx analysis using fuzzy matrices.l     Algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a xx are presented and justified.l     The use of the method is discussed and an example is given.l     Results of an experimental applications of this xx analysis procedure are given to illustrate the proposed technique.l     This paper analyses problems in l     This paper outlines the functions carried out by ...l     This paper includes an illustration of the ...l     This paper provides an overview and information useful for approachingl     Emphasis is placed on the construction of a criterion function by which the xx in achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are evaluated.l     The main emphasis is placed on the problem of xxl     Our proposed model is verified through experimental study.l     The experimental results reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phases of : xx,xxl     The compatibility of a project in terms of cost, and xx are likewise represented by linguistic variables.l     A didactic example is included to illustrate the computational procedureChapter 1. IntroductionTimel     Over the course of the past 30 years, .. has emerged form intuitive l     Technological revolutions have recently hit the industrial worldl     The advent of ... systems for  has had a significant impact on the l     The development of ... is exploredl     During the past decade, the theory of fuzzy sets has developed in a variety of directions,l     The concept of xx was investigated quite intensively in recent yearsl     There has been a turning point in ... methodology in accordance with the advent of ...l     A major concern in ... today is to continue to improve...l     A xx is a latecomer in the part representation arena.l     At the time of this writing, there is still no standard way of xxl     Although a lot of effort is being spent on improving these weaknesses, the efficient and effective method has yet to be developed.l     The pioneer work can be traced to xx [1965].l     To date,  none of the methods developed is perfect and all are far from ready to be used in commercial systems.Objective / Goal / Purposel     The purpose of the inference engine can be outlined as follows:l     The ultimate goal of the xx system is to allow the non‑experts to utilize the existing knowledge in the area of manual handling of loads, and to provide intelligent, computer‑aided instruction for xxx.l     The paper concerns the development of a xxl     The scope of this research lies inl     The main theme of the paper is the application of rule‑based decision making.l     These objectives are to be met with such thoroughness and confidence as to permit ...l     The objectives of the  ... operations study are as follows:l     The primary purpose/consideration/objective ofl     The ultimate goal of this concept is to providel     The main objective of such a ... system is tol     The aim of this paper is to provide methods to construct such probability distribution.l    In order to achieve these objectives, an xx must meet the following requirements:l     In order to take advantage of their similarityl     more research is still required before final goal of ... can be completedl     In this trial, the objective is to generate...l     for the sake of concentrating on ... research issuesl     A major goal of this report is to extend the utilization of a recently developed procedure for the xx.l     For an illustrative purpose, four well‑known OR problems are studied in presence of fuzzy data: xx.l     A major thrust of the paper is to discuss approaches and strategies for structuring ..methodsl     This illustration points out the need to specifyl     The ultimate goal is both descriptive and prescriptive.l     Chapter 2. Literature Reviewl     A wealth of information is to be found in the statistics literature, for example, regarding xxl     A considerable amount of research has been done .. during the last decadel     A great number of studies report on the treatment of uncertainties associated with xx.l     There is considerable amount of literature on planningl     However, these studies do not provide much attention to undertainty in xx.l     Since then, the subject has been extensively explored and it is still under investigation as well in methodological aspects as in concrete applications.l     Many research studies have been carried out on this topic.l     Problem of xx draw recently more and more attention of system analysis.l     Attempts to resolve this dilemma have resulted in the development of l     Many complex processes unfortunately, do not yield to this design procedure and have, therefore, not yet been automated.l     Most of the methods developed so far are deterministic and /or probabilistic in nature.l     The central issue in all these studies is to l     The problem of xx has been studied by other investigators, however, these studies have been based upon classical statistical approaches.l     Applied ... techniques tol     Characterized the ... system asl     Developed an algorithm tol     Developed a system called ... whichl     Uses an iterative algorithm to deducel     Emphasized the need tol     Identifies six key issues surrounding high technologyl     A comprehensive study of the .. has been undertaken l     Much work has been reported recently in these filedl     Proposedl     Presentedl     State thatl     Point out that the problem of l     Describedl     Illustratedl     Indicatedl     Has shown / showedl     Addressl     Highlightsl     A study on ...was done / developed by []l     Previous work, such as [] and [], deal only withl     The approach taken by [] isl     The system developed by [] consistsl     A paper relevant to this research was published by []l     []'s model requires consideration of ..l     []' model draws attention to evolution in human developmentl     []'s model focuses on...l     Little research has been conducted in applying ... tol     The published information that is relevant to this research...l     This study further shows thatl     Their work is based on the principle of l     More history of ... can be found in xx et al. [1979].l     Studies have been completed to establishedl     The ...studies  indicated that l     Though application of xx in the filed of xx has proliferated in recent years, effort in analyzing xx, especially xx, is lacking.Problem / Issue / Questionl     Unfortunately, real-world engineering problems such as manufacturing planning do not fit well with this narrowly defined model.  They tend to span broad activities and require consideration of multiple aspects.l     Remedy / solve / alleviate these problemsl     ... is a difficult problem, yet to be adequately resolvedl     Two major problems have yet to be addressedl     An unanswered questionl     This problem in essence involves using x to obtain a solution.l     An additional research issue to be tackled is ....l     Some important issues in developing a ... system are discussedl     The three prime issues can be summarized:l     The situation leads to the problem of how to determine the ...l     There have been many attempts to l     It is expected to be serious barrier to l     It offers a simple solution in a limited domain for a complex problem.l     There are several ways to get around this problem.l     As difficult as it seems to be, xx is by no means new.l     The problem is to recognize xx from a design representation.l     A xx problem can trace its roots to xx.l     xx [1987] used a heuristic approach to simplify the complexity of the problem.l     Several problems are associated with them.l     Although some progress has been made in this area, at least two major obstacles must be overcome before a fully automated system can be realized.l     Most problems in practice are complicatedl     More problem surface here.l     Hamper effort toward a xx systeml     In order to overcome the limitations due to incomplete and imprecise xx knowledge, a xx program has been developed, which bases its knowledge upon the statistical analysis of a sample population of xxl     The above difficulties are real challenges faced by researchers attempting to developl     This type of mapping raises no controversy to the issue of membership function determination.l     However, attempts to quantify the xx have met both theoretical and empirical problems.l     It has become apparent that in order to apply this new methodological framework to real‑world problems and data, we have to pay attention to the problems of xx and xx.Chapter 3. Proposed methodologyAssumptionl     In the case when the assumption of a xx seems to be too restrictive or inadequate, the formulation with Fuzzy termination time, i.e. given by a fuzzy set in the space of control stages, may be applied.l     We assume here the fuzzy constraints to be state‑dependent, and the fuzzy goal to be the same for all the control states, xx, which stems from the problem's nature.l     An approach to the solution of this problem is presented under the assumption that the sampling rate Decision can be made prior to the execution of the experiment, as opposed to being made while the experiment is in progress.l     Another assumption made above is that there are precise odds at which the expert is indifferent.l     Main simplifying assumptions are:l     This, in our view, is a questionable assumption.Outline / Structure / Modulel     An outline of the researchl     Information is incorporated within the schemel     Is built into ... structurel     A nice modular structure.l     The principles of ... are applied as modularized criteriaClassificationl     A xx system comprises three main components:l     Must decompose the original .. into a set of ..l     Consists of the following steps:l     This is summarized in the following steps:l     Can be broadly classified into the following areas:l     Can be characterized by its function of effectively processing thel     Can allow further breadth of application of ...into morel     The following steps should be followedl     xx can be classified by a different ways.l     Based on the xx, one may classify xx into the following:l     This catalog may change due to wear, breakage, and purchasing.Systeml     Unlike many conventional program, expert systems do not usually deal with problem for which there is clearly a right or wrong answer.l     The system consists of both ... and ...l     The system has a hierarchical modular architecture organized on three levels.l     expert system domains are area of expertisel     To develop a xx system for xx, the following factors must be considered:l     The system has been developed / designed to determinel     The system has proven to be able to l     The domain in which an expert system operates is a particular domainl     The system comprises a ... withl     The system is [feature-oriented ] / based on the ... techniquel     The system environment must be relatively stablel     The system is utilized to generate, load, store, update and retrieve ...l     The development of a xx system has two stages:  xx stage and xx stage.l     The most essential part of .. system is the ...l     The successful developments in ESs have made them an important tool in the development of l     An automated system was developed forl     In this case, the system can be considered to be generative.l     An interactive automatic ... systeml     A .. is commonly thought of as a truly integrated .. systeml     Should be capable of being generated from a ... systeml     xx is an important part of the integrated system.l     The model consists of four rule bases, each of which addresses a separate problem in the hierarchy of scheduling decision.l     The rule bases are linked to each other in a chin‑like manner in the sense that the consequent of one rule base constitutes a part of the antecedent of the next rule base.l     The rule base consists of all possible combinations of the linguistic terms associated with the linguistic variable of the antecedent of a rule.Computer Systeml     The system has been implemented using Prolog language in an MS‑DOS environment.  Prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.l     The current version of the xx program when compiled with WATFOR77 results in an executable code of about 270K bytes.  Typical run time, when run on a XX computer (an IBM compatible machine) operating at 4.77 Mhz with 640K RAM, ranges from 10 min to 2h, depending on the size (or complexity) of the problem.l     Time consuming procedures have been implemented in C‑language and directly linked to the Prolog environment.l     The xx process, once the xx's data has been entered, requires approximately 180 seconds.l     It should be noted that the computation was done with a 20 Hhz, 80386‑based microcomputer equipped with a 80387 math co‑processor.l     The computer programs used for the analyses, one based on the xx method and the other based on the new method, were written in FORTRAN with a compiler that supports the math co‑processor.l     Lisp, Prolog give maximum flexibility but also maximizes development time.l     Internal representation is the way a model is represented in the computer.l     An interactive menu-driven procedure is used in this studyl     Shell can be develop very fast at the cost of time fairly severe limitations.l     While there is no measurable saving of time for the case involving five criteria, the saving is dramatic for the case involving 10 criteria -- the computation time reduces from 10 hr 40 min to about 1 min.l     This combination is being implemented in an objected‑oriented programming environment (Smalltalk‑80 system) to solve problems encountered in construction xxx.Method / Approach / Study / Process Model / Equation /Algorithm / Rule / Formula / Techniquel     A discussion is presented of a problem-solving systeml     To improve the efficiency of the method, the following approach may be applied.l     In order to an investigation was made to find the causes of thel     Although large collections of rules and equations have been complied, none are generally accepted l     This approach will be explained and discussed thoroughly in the body of the report.l     This can be accomplished byl     This algorithm to compute the total cost can be described step by step as follows:l     The above preliminary analysis has provided important informationl     Various methods have been proposed for selecting an optimum...l     These concepts have been applied to l     On the basis of the concept mentioned above,l     This can be achieved byl     This fact suggests that a new conceptl     This was accomplished by taking ...l     The preparatory stage is very time consuming process.l     Test are performed for validity, completeness, and compatibilityl     There is little hope of achieving successful ...l     There has been an increasing awareness of the potential of using most ..so far made have not taken this approach, with the exception ofl     Only a few studies can be found.l     It is a very tedious process to go throughl     It is only when .. has been completed that .. may be effectedl     The entire interpretation process is conducted in one's head.l     These approaches are sometimes very tedious.l     Several techniques can be usedl     A polynomial parametric model can be written as [the following]/[follows]:l     A xx model is constructed/formulated using xx.l     A xx model represents an xx by its xx.l     A process decision model captures the logic essential tol     From the equation above, xx is equal to the summation of xx times the ...l     The validity of a xx model can be checked using Euler's formula.l     Given a model, one can mathematically determine whether ... or ...l     Equations for xx need to be derived and implemented in the system.l     A number of heuristic rules have been developed forl     Optimum .. techniques can be made more reliable by ... so thatl     An algorithm based on the characteristic ... is used to determinel     Euler's formula states the following:l     The completed model should agree with the formula.l     For manufacturing purposes, a detailed and precise model of the object is necessaryl     Engineering design models are very well defined; therefore, l     To keep the domain narrow enough to be implementable, yet wide enough to be useful.Point of Viewl     from an implementation standpoint,l     From the point of view of this application,l     From this point of view, Zadeh suggested an inference rule named xxx (CRI for short).l    Information is the meaningful interpretation and correlation of some aggregation of data in order to allow one to make decisions.l     From a practical point of view, the computational aspects of an FLC require a simplification of the fuzzy control algorithm.l     The use of a hammer to insert screws, although partly effective, tends to distort, destroy, and generally defeat the purpose of using a screw [Kusiak AI Implications for CIM p.129]Justificationl     We choose the so called xx in our experiment because it has received wide acceptance and canl     Prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.l     The rationale behind this is that it can be much easier for an estimator to rate a cost as high than to attempt to place a dollar value on the estimate.l     This strategy has been widely used in fuzzy control applications since it is natural and easy to implement.l     A function definition expresses the membership function of a fuzzy set in a functional form, typically a bell‑shaped function, etc.  Such functions are used in FLC because they lead themselves to manipulation through the use of fuzzy arithmetic.l     It should be noted that in our daily life most of the information on which our decisions are based is linguistic rather than numerical in nature.  Seen in this perspective, fuzzy control rules provide a natural framework for the characterization of human behavior and decisions analysis.  l     Many experts have found that fuzzy control rules provide a convenient way to express their domain knowledge.  This explains why most FLCs are based on the knowledge and experience which are expressed in the language of fuzzy “if‑the” rule.Chapter 4. ExamplesExample/ Datal     The data used in the following example was taken from an experiment in which xx was measured between x and x using a xx technique.l     The data consists of over xx measurements.l     An example of xx is discussed and the control rules of xx are compared with a xxl     Examples of complex processes to which this technique may be applied are xx, xx, etc.l     The following example is constructed only for the purpose of illustrating the computational procedure discussed.l     This example clearly demonstrates that the profile of an individual xx, or a very small group of xx, with no enough data to be studied statistically, can be meaningfully analyzed by fuzzy possibilistic methods.l     There is no space here to go into detail on all these methods, but deserve a mention and the bibliography will point to detailed references for those wishing this level of detail.l     Note that the golf ball spotting example is used throughout the paper.Comparisonsl     As well, the pros and cons of these representations from a process planning point of view will be discussed.l     The method of using xx to implement xx described by Zadeh (1973) appeared more suitablel     As discussed [in the previous section]/[preciously],Relationl     We can not invert F' directly because it defines a many-to-one mapping.l     The relationships appear very complicatel     Lifting tasks involve complex and imprecise relationship between the task variables and the human operator's characteristics.l     These methods are based on the relationship between ... and ...l     The fundamental concept of a fuzzy rating language is that we can establish a relationship among terms such as high, medium, and low, and then modify these relationships.l     This article will thus mention the latter as well as the former.l     The former two bear a close relation to a fuzzy Cartesian product.Importancel     The emphasis is on an implementation of a general approach to rule based decision making.Consideration / Attentionl     Careful evaluation is necessary to ensure l     Such a formulation does not change further considerations.l     Considerable attention has been paid tol     Attention should be paid to an important finding of this investigation.l     Caution should be exercised in this process to avoid ...l    Primary consideration is given to ... components, though others can be accommodatedl     After ... has been defined by ..., a carefully analysis is carried out/performed to determinel     A number of factors such as ...need to be taken into consideration before making the appropriate decision.l     It should be noted thatl     It is important to point out that ...l     These considerations have heightened interest in the possibility of providing ...l     We should stress the fundamental importance of the xxChapter 5. Results.Advantages / Disadvantagel     One of the major advantages of this new measure of xx is that it can be applied to the experimental study ofl     One advantage of using a .. is the ease of preparing it.l     The xx system is versatilel     It has a very fast decision making processl     All the algorithms involve mostly logical operations.l  It can be easily and without additional cost implemented in a microprocessor‑based environment.l     It can reduce the waste of designing from scratch.l     The advantages of using a xx to represent xx are the following:l     However, xx is not without its shortcomings.l     In most cases, the xxx shows an improvement over the existing xxx.l     Compared to the existing xx, the impacts of the xx are generally reduced by 5% to 9%.l     The “best case” results shows a savings of 6% to 9%.l     Most of the existing works based on xx approach can only recognize a xx .l     Most of the above methods are computational expansive and limited to xx.l     Some other advantages of xx are the following:l     The problem is the limitation of this method to a limited domain of parts.l     It proved limited in application because it demanded precision in system modeling that was impossible in practice.l     There are advantages to be gained in the structuring of costs and benefits, the use of xx, l     The disadvantages of this method are also disadvantages of conventional xx approaches.l     This combines the best features of both techniquesl     Hopefully, this tool can be as the reference framework of for developing a xx platform, and helping the administration, marketing, and knowledge management activities in virtual communities.Resultsl     An improvement on the result shown above can be made by based on the data providedl     Discussion of these theories is beyond the scope of this reviewl     Based on the information contained in thisl     The result can be categorized into nine classesl     The results are illustrated by an examplel     The experimental results for each xx time are reported in Table 2.l     From the results obtained so far, it seem thatl     Because of the inaccuracy of the ..., a conclusion cannot be drawn as l     Although much effort has been made to., this reality is far from completion.l     The results indicate that the total benefits are higher than the total costs.l     Their results may then serve as guidelines for lower level models, less fuzzy and more detailed.Chapter 6. Conclusionl     From the discussion, one may conclude that ...l     Form the above discussion, the conclusion can be reached that l     The conclusions drawn are also validl     In conclusion to this, it becomes obvious that the problem of xx lies not only in...l     We have attempted to introduce some concepts associated with a theory of xx based on fuzzy sets.l     Considerable more work, hopefully, will be done in this areal     A fuzzy set procedure is proposed to solve xx selection problems interwoven with imprecise datal     Employing the compositional rule of inference, the assessment of the xx compatibility in achieving prescribed xx projectiles in any level of the hierarchy is made possible.l    This paper has presented a theoretical and experimental study of the xx process and xx concept.l    The experimental research results will hopefully serve as useful feedback information for improvements for xx work.l    The scope of this contribution was to introduce a xx method.l    In general, fuzzy sets theory provides an alternative foundation for xx analysis in a fuzzy environment.Future Researchl     Thus, first extension of the approach could be, l     Present some cues for a further approach from Fuzzy Sets Theory application to l     Some improvements to the scheduling aspect of the model may be brought through additional levels in the hierarchy for more detailed representation of the scheduling activity.Tables and Figuresl     Figure 7-1 sketches these relationships.l     The graphical representation of these functions is shown in Figure 1.l     The xx may be depicted as in Figure 1.l     Figure x shows the schematic diagram of  the l     Figure 1 though 2 provide a ... thatl     the architecture of this expert system for .... is illustrated in Figure 2.l     Figure 2 gives the outline of an ... systeml     Table shows thel     as shown in Table 1 and 2l     This concept is illustrated in Figure 2l     At the top of Table xx are shown two blocks of data. l     Each table or matrix has constructs xx through xx as row‑headings, xx through xx as column‑headings.l     A table of .. is developed and significant recommendations are made.CONJUGATIONTo Indicate Additionl     additionally, again, also, and then, as can be easily understood, besides, equally important, especially, finally, for the same reason, first, further, furthermore, in addition, last, likewise, moreover, next, second, third, too, evidently, obviously, roughly speaking, broadly speakingTo Indicate Cause and Effectl     accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, hence, in short, otherwise, then, therefore, thus, trulyTo indicate Comparisonl     in a like manner, likewise, similarly , alternativelyTo Indicate Concessionl     after all, although this may be true, at the same time, even though, even so , I admit, naturally, of courseTo Indicate Contrastl     and yet, at the same time, but, for all that, however, yet, in fact, in contrast, in the real life, in spite of, nevertheless, notwithstanding, normally, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, traditionally, rather, unfortunately,To Indicate Time Relationshipsl     after a short time, afterwards, as indicated earlier, as long as, as soon as, at last, at length, at the moment, at that time, at the same time, before, earlier, currently, immediately, in the meantime, in recent years, lately, later, meanwhile, often, of late, presently, recently, soon, shortly, since, thereupon, temporarily, therefore, until, when, whileTo Indicate Special Features or Examplesl     for example, for instance, incidentally, indeed, in fact, in other words, in particular, in practice, specifically, that is, to illustrate, in this respect, theoretically, as mentioned before / aboveTo Indicate Summaryl     in brief, in conclusion, in short, in summary, on the whole, to conclude, in general, to summarize, to sum up, as a result, ultimately,VERB PHASEl     build a .. modell     build up the key linkl     began a new era in ...l     can be     regarded as / achieved / used to/for / found / obtained throughl     can result inl     carries out  ... tasks l     production information in order to simultaneouslyl     contains all information necessary to describel     do not make use of production informationl     deals withl     end with failurel     fetch the information from the model directlyl     has great potential / yet to be resolved / spurred the development of  / been recognized as l     BE   aimed at / built up / carried out by / essentially concerned with / considered to be the key technology / associated with each feature of a composite component / cable of / currently implemented for / demonstrated by an example / finally reached / made equal to / equivalent to  / more suitable to / oriented to / interpreted as / pointed out / potentially of great benefit in the complex task of  / shown in  / used to effectively guide the searchl     makes use of l     make upl     meets the needs of real life production,/ the current demands placed upon itl     must be justifiedl     point outl     play an important rolel     relates tol     rely on l     satisfy the needsl     determine the total requirements for the ...l     uses ... as a key to search for...l     without relying onl     will be available/ performed/ overlookedNOUN PHASEl     a basic technical function of l     a critical needl     a key / principle feature ofl     a substantial impact onl     an intensive review was conductedl     an increasing need for expanding the application of ....l     an important component / function / aspect / issuel     each rule is numbered in sequencel     each of these involvesl     for this calculation, it is necessary to definel     in the physical environment / integration ofl     in the reality of situations where …l     many aspects of l     most past efforts have been spent on ...l     common sense to a well studied and documented technical field.l     sources of additional information on ... are listedl     systematic and rationally structured formatl     the basis on which a  range of ...operations can be established is shownl     THE   basic philosophy / principles of / key element / general hypothesis / candidate list of / concept of  ... has attracted wide interest /  function is concerned with / heart / impact / nature / role / task of / kernel functions l     the number of parts needed to l     the above statement means thatl     the output data is passed to l     the proposed method /  underlying principlel     the recommendations made in this report, if implemented, shouldl     this information resides inl     this process is composed of ... different ... operationl     along with the use of l     concerning general aspects ofl     due tol     for later use in generating...,l     in turn,l     IT IS     believed / noted / assumed / suggested / shown / quite evident / appears / implies that / intended for / of no important tol     it can be claimed/concluded thatl     it demonstrates the decisions required of l     it also provides information to ..l     it becomes essential to l     let ... be the probability thatl     once... is written, it is compiled into...l     suppose it is observe

篇5：英文论文写作体会

英文论文写作体会

本人近日侥幸在某sci索引的外刊发表一篇论文，想在这里浅谈一下发外文的体会，供学弟、学妹们参考。我觉得发外文时主要注意以下几点：1.

论文中必须至少有一个创新点。创新点或是开创性的工作，或是对原有工作的改进，或是提出一种新方法。老外对公式不是很看重，主要看你是否有创新。2.

在外刊上发过文章的同学都知道，introduction部分是最难写的，我认为在这部分中不但要提及题目的意义，别人的研究成果，更重要的是要指出你这篇论文的贡献，以吸引审稿人的眼球。3.

标题也很重要，即要新颖又要体现你的论文的主要工作及采用的方法4.

实验素材要丰富，以数据说话，让人感觉你作了许多工作。5.

要直接用英文写，学会用英语语言思考问题，不要先写成汉语再翻成英语，这样写出来的东西总有点中国英语的味道，让审稿人看起来不舒服。6.

平时多看一些牛刊的论文，摘抄一个常用的'语句及段落，如开场白、题目的意义、章节安排、语气转折等，活学活用。这样写出来的文章看起来就很漂亮了。7.

对审稿人提出的修改意见或建议一定要认真对待，尽量满足他们的要求，如你认为某些意见或建议不妥，要在回信中加以阐述。8.

认真研究所发期刊的参考文献的引用格式。我的一位师兄就是因为这点直接被拒了。

篇6：医学英文论文写作

医学论文是推进医学科学发展的重要方面，是医学科学研研和临床工作总结；是促进医学科研成果的交流和提高医疗技术水平的重要工具，一篇好的医学论文，要求具备两个：

以下几个方面：①医学科研论文内容的科学性、先进性、实用性。②写作技巧上注意文字简洁、观点鲜明、数据准确、内容真实、具有实验的重复性、符合国家标准的计量单位。

一、科学性：

一篇医学论文的首要条件是必须具有科学性。所谓科学性、是指论文所介绍的方法、论点，是否可以使用科学方法来证实，多次实验具有实验结果的重复性。这就要求： ⑴ 进行科研设计时具有周密的考虑，排除一切对实验结果可能干扰的不利因素； ⑵ 设立必要的对照组，甚至双盲对照研究； ⑶ 对实验和观察的数据，要进行统计学处理； ⑷ 无论理论研究和实验研究，对其结果的分析要从实际资料出发，得出正确的结论，切忌空谈假设。

二、先进性：

医学论文的先进性，实际上指这篇论文是否达到一定的科学水准，一篇论文尽管具备了科学性，但不一定具备先进性，对医学论文的先进性，我们可以从两个方面来衡量，一是医学理论水平，如原理探讨，疗效机制等是否有新的突破；二是实践水平，如诊断水平及治疗水平高于一般的医疗技术。

三、实用性：

与临床诊断及治疗的紧密联系，具有可重复性。最终目的解决临床上的疑难病症、如：对癌症发病机制、及对癌症的诊断治疗具有相当的指导作用。

四、医学论文的类型：一般医学刊物中刊用的文章，大致可分为以下几种类型：述评、论著、病例报告、临床病例讨论、学术交流、综述、专题笔谈、经验介绍、讲座、简讯等。

五、医学论文的基础结构：

医学论文的具体撰写，一般可分为题目、序言、材料与方法、结果、讨论、参考文献等项。题目：医学论文的题目必须符合内容而简明扼要、突出重点，能够明确表达论文的性质和目的。题目一般都采用主要由名词组成的词组来表达，且标题不宜过长、一般少于 20 字。摘要：全文必须描述通过什么方法，得到什么结果，资料及数据来源，提出的结论。具体按四要素来书写中、英文摘要：目的方法（ Methods ）、结果（ Results ）、结论（ Results ）、中英文内容要一致。字数控制在 200 字左右。关键词或主题词 3 ～ 5 条。 英文摘要应包括文题、作者姓名（汉语拼音）、单位名称、所在城市名及邮政编码。作者应列出前3位， 3 位以上加 “et al” 。序言：过去研究的情况、方法、目的和所获得的主要成果或特点。文字不宜超过 100 ～ 200 字。 材料和方法：这是执行科研的关键部分， 对于要进行的科学研究工作，必须按照实际情况，在事先： ⑴ 选择好合适的即合乎一定条件的、一定数量的研究对象； ⑵ 采用一定的实验、诊断或治疗方法（包括实验步骤、方法、器材试剂、药品）； ⑶ 经过一定时期的观察，相同条件下的对照组，与他人结果比较并综合分析。这部分内容要求简明准确、材料完整及可信。 结果：把全部原始资料集中起来加以分析，在处理这些原始资料时，应是随机地，客观地加以分析。讨论：是一篇论文中十分重要的部分，其主要任务是探讨 “结果 ”的意义。讨论的主要内容包括： ⑴ 主要的原理和概念； ⑵ 实验条件的优缺点； ⑶ 本人结果与他人结果的异同，突出新的发现及新发明； ⑷ 解释因果关系，说明偶然性与必然性； ⑸ 尚未定论之处，相反的理论； ⑹ 急需研究的方向和存在的主要问题。“讨论”的内容也以精简为原则，要能讲清楚主要的论点，已经谈过的不宜在这一节里予以重复。在结论的问题中避免以假设来 “证明”假设，以未知来说明未知，并依次循环推论。

六：医学论文的产生过程：

选题阶段：论文的选题，也即是科研的选题，有时一项科研可产生多篇论文。选题过程一般可分为三步：初拟题目：在这项工作之前必须手中有资料和设想，当然可以是前瞻性研究或回顾性总结，大致可有以下几个方面： ⑴ 临床遇到的罕见病例和疑难病例；⑵ 危重病人的诊治经验； ⑶ 阅读国内外文献、参加学术会议受到的启发，进行技术和方法的移植研究； ⑷ 新药、新仪器的临床应用，新的诊断方法及治疗经验； ⑸ 上级布置或招标的题目。在初步考虑拟选题目之后，应进行全面的文献检索，避免题目类同、结论陈旧和不符合客观事实。在别人研究成果基础上寻找尚未解决的问题作为自己的研究题目。实验研究阶段：这包括应用国外或国内的先进手段、药物、手术方法、检测等进行临床试用、观察和随访调查，并用动物或正常人作对照试验，要求详细记录各种数据及资料，作为论证和评价成果的依据。整理、分析资料和总结阶段：对以上资料进行统计分析，绘制图表，临床分析和比较，得出显效、有效和生存率、死亡率、发病率等结论，并分析其相互关系，引证文献作对比。分析成功和失败的原因及制约因素，并对病因学、流行病学、发病机制进行论证，包括预后的估价。最后对论文作出自我评价，提出有待进一步探讨的问题。撰写论文阶段：该详则祥，该简则简，文字简练，用语准确，恰如其氛，切忌浮夸和虚构。当然，在产生论文以前，每位作者必须学会文献检索，统计学的基础知识的 X2 检验、 T 检验、 F 检验、相关分析、回归运算、如何选择样本大小等，努力阅读医学情报信息和文献积累，在实践中不断总结，逐步提高写作水平，这样才能水到渠成写出真正好的论文。

七：医学论文撰写中的常见问题：科研设计的选题与立题问题标题太长，主题不突出。标题与内容不符，或题目太大而内容贫乏。 标题单调，主题不明确。 关于题目要求： ⑴ 可检索性； ⑵ 特异； ⑶ 明确； ⑷ 简短。命题方法： ⑴ 方法； ⑵ 结论； ⑶ 探讨。关于把 “ 构成比 ” 当 “ 率 ” 的概念问题：在医学文献中，我们发现有些作者对患病率、发病率、死亡率、感染率等概念混淆不清。关于疗效的确切评价问题：只有观察组没有对照组，有比较才能有鉴别，医学研究结果如无适当的对照比较，就难结论。即使有了对照组，若两者之间没有可比性，同样不能得出确切的结论。以上可见，对照组与实验组一定在性别、年龄、病情、病期、病型、部位、疗程等条件大致相同的情况下，才有可比性，其结果才有科学价值。

病例资料经过有意无意的挑选：有些论文，对所谓 “资料不全”、 “疗程未满 ”、“未随访到”的病例剔除不计，这样所得的结果往往比实际疗效高，因为若如此剔除，其结果的科学性必然成问题。更有甚者，对一些数据，主观臆断地以某种原因为理由加以剔除，完全失去了这次研究的意义。考核方法和考核指标的科学性不够： ⑴ 无明确的客观指标、仅凭患者主诉进行考核；⑵ 观察、研究人员的主观偏面性； ⑶ 考核标准过低； ⑷ 数据未经统计学处理； ⑸ 考核方法不够科学。统计学分析的差错。 ⑴ 对照组的设立（随机同期对照、历史性对照、不同地区或医院的对照交叉对照）； ⑵ 随机化分组（简单、区组、分层）； ⑶ 盲法（非盲、双盲）。以上资料，说明了在考核疗效时一定要注意： ⑴ 病例资料的可比性； ⑵ 客观数据要经统计学处理； ⑶ 考核指标要有严格的科学性（可比性、指标不能过低，不能有主观偏面性等）。

图表的应用问题：图表是表达研究数据，使之一目了然的最简洁方法。一般来说 “图”是从 “表”来的，可以使读者从图中看出一个大概趋势和实验内容。在图表应用上，可用文字表达的就尽可能不用图表，必需用的也不宜过多，一般在 4 幅以内。

八：写作技巧问题：论文要使读者喜爱就必须求 “新”、 “精”、“全”。文字简练达到“量体裁衣”的水平，力争达到“少一句不够，多一句嫌罗嗦”的要求。一般论著字数在 2500 ～ 5000 字左右，摘要在 1500 ～ 字左右，病例报告在 1000 字左右。字迹要端正。简化字要规范，不用自选字及自选简化字。各种符号亦要符合规范。其他当有医学名词、药物名词、数字、统计学符号、缩略语、基金资助、著作权法等问题，一切均按国家及中华医学会规定的标准执行。计量单位请按法定计量单位书写。

1.医学论文写作要点

2.医学论文写作目的

3.医学论文写作

4.sci英文论文写作指导

5.医学论文写作要求方法

6.医学学术论文写作方法

7.医学论文写作技巧

8.医学论文写作要素

9.医学论文写作技巧

10.医学论文写作程序

篇7：英文论文写作体会

。我觉得发外文时主要注意以下几点：1. 论文中必须至少有一个创新点。创新点或是开创性的工作，或是对原有工作的改进，或是提出一种新方法。老外对公式不是很看重，主要看你是否有创新。2. 在外刊上发过文章的同学都知道，Introduction部分是最难写的，我认为在这部分中不但要提及题目的意义，别人的研究成果，更重要的是要指出你这篇论文的.贡献，以吸引审稿人的眼球。3. 标题也很重要，即要新颖又要体现你的论文的主要工作及采用的方法4. 实验素材要丰富，以数据说话，让人感觉你作了许多工作，

论文

5. 要直接用英文写，学会用英语语言思考问题，不要先写成汉语再翻成英语，这样写出来的东西总有点中国英语的味道，让审稿人看起来不舒服。6.平时多看一些牛刊的论文，摘抄一个常用的语句及段落，如开场白、题目的意义、章节安排、语气转折等，活学活用。这样写出来的文章看起来就很漂亮了。7. 对审稿人提出的修改意见或建议一定要认真对待，尽量满足他们的要求，如你认为某些意见或建议不妥，要在回信中加以阐述。8. 认真研究所发期刊的参考文献的引用格式。我的一位师兄就是因为这点直接被拒了。

篇8：英文论文写作体会

英文论文写作体会 -文秘文书

本人近日侥幸在某SCI索引的外刊发表一篇论文，想在这里浅谈一下发外文的体会，供学弟、学妹们参考。我觉得发外文时主要注意以下几点：1. 论文中必须至少有一个创新点。创新点或是开创性的工作，或是对原有工作的改进，或是提出一种新方法。老外对公式不是很看重，主要看你是否有创新。2. 在外刊上发过文章的同学都知道，Introduction部分是最难写的`，我认为在这部分中不但要提及题目的意义，别人的研究成果，更重要的是要指出你这篇论文的贡献，以吸引审稿人的眼球。3. 标题也很重要，即要新颖又要体现你的论文的主要工作及采用的方法4. 实验素材要丰富，以数据说话，让人感觉你作了许多工作。5. 要直接用英文写，学会用英语语言思考问题，不要先写成汉语再翻成英语，这样写出来的东西总有点中国英语的味道，让审稿人看起来不舒服。6.平时多看一些牛刊的论文，摘抄一个常用的语句及段落，如开场白、题目的意义、章节安排、语气转折等，活学活用。这样写出来的文章看起来就很漂亮了。7. 对审稿人提出的修改意见或建议一定要认真对待，尽量满足他们的要求，如你认为某些意见或建议不妥，要在回信中加以阐述。8. 认真研究所发期刊的参考文献的引用格式。我的一位师兄就是因为这点直接被拒了。

篇9：英文写作优美句子

1、The morning sun never lasts a day.好景不常;朝阳不能光照全日。

2、He that doth most at once doth least.什么都想一次做完，结果一件也做不完;贪多嚼不烂。

3、To be without some of the things you want is an indispensable part of happiness.有些东西你想要而没有，这是幸福不可缺少的一部分。

4、The day is short but the work is much.工作多，光阴迫。

5、To live is to learn,to learn is to better live.活着为了学习，学习为了更好的活着。

6、The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can supply fresh air for us.我们必须种树的.原因是它们能供应我们新鲜的空气。

7、The harder you work,the more progress you make.你愈努力，你愈进步。

8、Nothing is more important than to receive education.没有比接受教育更重要的事。

9、Have you somewhat to do tomorrow,do it today.明天如有事，今天就去做。

篇10：英文写作优美句子

英文写作优美句子

1、Look before you leap.

三思而后行。

2、Finished labours are pleasant.

完成工作是一乐。

3、Nothing is more important than to receive education.

没有比接受教育更重要的事。

4、The day is short but the work is much.

工作多，光阴迫。

5、The harder you work,the more progress you make.

你愈努力，你愈进步。

6、The morning sun never lasts a day.

好景不常；朝阳不能光照全日。

7、A wise man never loses anything if he has himself.

聪明的人只要能掌握自己，便什么也不会失去。

8、People believe that computer skills will enhance their job opportunities or promotion opportunities.

人们相信拥有计算机技术可以获得更多工作或提升的机会。

9、He that doth most at once doth least.

什么都想一次做完，结果一件也做不完；贪多嚼不烂。

10、To be without some of the things you want is an indispensable part of happiness.

有些东西你想要而没有，这是幸福不可缺少的一部分。

11、The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can supply fresh air for us.

我们必须种树的原因是它们能供应我们新鲜的空气。

12、To live is to learn,to learn is to better live.

活着为了学习，学习为了更好的活着。

13、Have you somewhat to do tomorrow,do it today.

明天如有事，今天就去做。

14、The sum of behaviour is to retain a man's own dignity, without intruding upon the liberty of others.

人的行为准则是，维护自己的尊严，不妨碍他人的自由。

15、We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

我们应该不遗余力地美化我们的环境。

16、and forever has no end.

永永远远，永无止境。

17、being with you is like walking on a very clear morning.

和你在一起就像在一个清爽的早晨漫步。

18、but if the while i think on thee, dear friend, all losses are restored, and sorrows end.

只要我一想起你，亲爱的人，所有的失落和遗憾烟消云散。

19、don――t cry because it is over,smile because it happened.

不要因为结束而哭泣。微笑吧，为你的曾经拥有。

20、don――t waste your time on a man/woman ,who isn――t willing to waste their time on you.

不要为那些不愿在你身上花费时间的人而浪费你的时间。

21、i feel at times we have had angry words but these have been kissed away.

我们生气争执时，爱的双唇把它们吻得无影无踪，我的心也顿觉甜蜜。

22、it is never too late to fall in love.

爱永远不会嫌晚。

23、life is a chain of moments of enjoyment,not only about survival.

生活是一串串的快乐时光，我们不仅仅是为了生存而生存。

24、life is a pure flame,and we live by an invisible sun within us.

生命是一束纯净的火焰，我们依靠自己内心看不见的太阳而存在。

25、love is something eternal; the aspect may change, but not the essence.

爱是永恒的，外表可能改变，但本质永远不变。

26、never frown,even when you are sad,because you never know who is falling in love with your smile.

纵然伤心，也不要愁眉不展，因为你不知道是谁会爱上你的笑容。

27、no man or woman is worth your tears,and the one who is,won――t make you cry.

没有人值得你流泪。值得让你这么所的人，不会让你哭泣。

28、the worst way to miss someone is to be sitting right beside them knowing you can――t have them.

失去某人，最糟糕的莫过于，他近在身旁，却犹如远在天边。

29、to the world you may be one person,but to one person you may be the world.

对于世界而言，你是一个人；但是对于某个人，你是他的整个世界。

30、where there is love, there are always wishes.

哪里有爱，哪里就有希望。()

31、you cannot appreciate happiness unless you have known sadness too.

不知道什么是忧伤，就不会真正感激幸福。

32、you don’t love a woman because she is beautiful, but she is beautiful because you love her.

你不会因为美丽去爱一个女人，但她却会因为你的爱而变得美丽。

篇11：英文论文写作为什么重要？

英文论文写作为什么重要？

原创： True Talent

TT在辅导学员的过程中十分关注他们的英文论文写作问题。英文的写作不仅影响着一门英文课的分数，也同时牵绊着无数影响大学申请的元素。

什么是英文论文写作？

提到英文论文写作，大家很容易便会联想到在校的英文课，尤其是英文课堂涉及文学习作的美高学生。现如今许多国内的高中也开始重视其英文课的设置，课上内容早已不止于语法和阅读理解的基础性学习，而是加入了英文论文写作。

论文跟“作文儿”是完全不一样的概念。中国教育体制中的英文课其实从很早就教过“作文儿”，几大特点是：

1）当堂限时写作 （半小时以内）

2）篇幅比较短（200字左右）

3）设定好的命题和内容

换言之，“作文儿”从某种程度上来说很像是一场翻译工作，把命题中要求表达的内容用英文写出来，学生自己不需要对内容和主题做过多的思考，全班同学完全可以写一样的内容。这样练习本没有错，因为其上课重点就在于练习语法和词汇。

论文跟托福文章是完全不一样的概念。托福像是“作文儿”的进阶版。进步在哪里呢？在于：

1）篇幅提高

2）需要自己定主旨

3）接受“非正式”的论证。

托福文章一般在300-500字左右，因而有了更多的“创作空间”。不同于“作文儿”，托福文章不会给设定好的命题，而是提供一个场景，让学生自己选定一个观点来写，及可以自己定主旨。既然要表达自己的观点，就少不了基础论证。论证就是讲道理，讲一讲为什么自己有这样的观点。但托福的论证其实很“不正式”，学生是可以用自己的“亲身经历”作为论据的。例如，文章可以允许这样的逻辑：

“肯尼迪曾经＊＊＊，这说明＊＊＊＊，所以我认为＊＊＊观点是合理的”。

或者可以通过比较片面的方式去讲一些道理。简言之，“以偏概全”在托福文章中是可以被接受的。为什么呢？因为托福考试依然是语言性测试，考官想看学生的英文表达有误问题，而不十分在意深层逻辑的严谨度。

话至此处，现如今美高和优质国内高中国际部要求的英文论文是什么呢？它满足这几点：

1）篇幅较长，一般在800-1000字

2）需要自己定主旨

3）需要非常严谨的'论证。

对于高中生或者大一大二的学生来说，以上三点最困难的是第三项——论证。为什么呢？因为论证对于语言有非常高的要求。对语言的“高要求”体现在语言清晰度、句子逻辑完整、用词准确。可以说是“以论证的角度去审视语言和语法”，这可跟一般的word文档“查语法错”完全不是一回事儿。

因此，英文论文对于母语不是英文的中国学生来说是很大的挑战。首先，学生需要先理清楚自己想写什么，通常都是用母语在脑海中理顺的。接着要用英文写出来，之中会遇到无数次辞不达意，但最终选择得过且过。最后发现读起来还是怪怪的，似乎并没有传达原本想要写的内容。()为什么会有这一系列纠结？因为其实从一开始就不应该用“中翻英”的思路的去思考论文，即不应该用“作文儿”的思路来考虑论文的写作。

英文论文写作如何提高？

写呗。实在不行就多写。

当然，并不是胡写一万篇论文就能出师，一定要以一个正确的方法来长期练习写作，从每一个学校留的小论文开始做起。以上提到了中国学生写论文时的难点在于思维的转变，但想要转变思考方式谈何容易？学生应当从更为基础的方式入手，例如解决一些基础性的写作问题：

1）学会写完全没有语法错的句子 （有的语法word文档语法检测系统不会“划红线”，但是依然是错的）

2）学会用准确的词语来表述关键的论点

3）学会写漂亮的句子。

以上三点并没有那么要不可及，并且会在短期之内产生一定的效果。很可惜的是，大部分学生没有做到以上三点，或是避免正视这个看似简单的问题。当学生拿到一个B-或者C的论文成绩的时候，大家会倾向于把错误归咎到文章结构和主题上。文章的结构和主题确实会很大程度影响分数，但若是把以上三点基础性问题解决，或许就能够扎实的拿到B/B+的成绩，那么A/A-还会远吗？

总的来说，别总是怪自己思想写得不够深刻，有时候老师给分低可能是因为你的句子写得太惨不忍睹，老师早已没心思关心文中的思想了。

英文论文写作与大学申请

对于美高和国内高中国际部的学生来说，英文论文写作是一种工具，而非英文课留的作业。科学课的lab report（实验报告），经济课的IA（论述分析），数学课的long question （简答题）都涉及英文论文写作的方法。换言之，所有课的分数都在无形之中受到影响，在校成绩单在申请中的地位不必多言。

申请文书的创作和英文论文写作很不一样，因设计创意性写作（creative writing）所以难度更高一些，但论文写作的能力是基础。任何看似随性、抒情、无厘头的文学作品背后，都有着一套十分清晰的套逻辑思考。学生不能仅仅去“模仿”创意性写作的形态，否则与parody有何区别？

好了不说了，请不知道上一段中“parody”是什么意思的同学现在回去在背一遍SAT单词??。

篇12：SCI英文论文参考文献写作

SCI英文论文参考文献写作

1、尽量选用原始文献

我们很多人也许有这样的经历，写文章前，都会查阅大量与自己论文研究相关的综述。因此在写sci英文论文时也会引用大量综述论文(这也是为什么综述文章被引用率都很高)。其实我们在做研究看文献时，都希望看到原始文献。比如，我们在阅读一篇文章的引言或讨论部分，对其引用的某些研究结果很感兴趣，翻倒最后参考文献一看，却来自一篇综述，自己难免失望。还得去查那篇综述去追踪原始文献。因此自己写文章，除了一些概括性的话，在研究进展介绍和解释自己结果时，尽可能引用原始文献。

2、尽量选用较新的文献

这点我想大家都能理解，更能突出本领域的最新研究进展和自己科研的意义和价值。同时也能为SCI杂志的影响因子做点贡献。但是，有些自己领域很经典的文献还是不能落下。

3、慎重选用中文文献

前段时间，我帮一个4分多的SCI杂志审一篇来自国内的研究论文。严格来说，这篇论文做得还不错。但是，40多篇参考文献中有5，6篇中文文献(都是通讯作者以前的文章，其中一篇还是80年代的)，只是把引用模式翻译成了英文，并且没有注明是中文文献。我当时是给了“MajorRevision”，并且提到了参考文献的问题，要么换掉，要么在后面注明“Chinese”。最后从作者的回复信中，发现3个审稿人都一致提到参考文献问题。不过，这篇文章修改后接受了。以上事例是提醒大家sci英文论文引用中文参考文献时要注意，尽量选那种能在Pubmed或GoogleScholar上查到英文摘要的文献，并且在文献后注明“Chinese”。

4、参考文献的.数量

sci英文论文参考文献的数量应该和论文的信息量成正相关。比如，一篇研究论文只有很少的研究结果，却在讨论中引用大量文献来进行解释和假设，这样不太好。不过，有些杂志对文献数量有限制。最好奉行“少而精”的原则。

5、参考文献的档次

其实，这是一个有争议的话题。理论上来说，sci英文论文发表的结果应该都是可以信赖的，文献不应该有档次问题。一篇Science文章引用1-2份杂志的文献，也很正常。但是，事实上有些审稿人还是比较注意这个问题。我的建议是，如果你发表高质量的论文，并且引用IF较低杂志的文献，可以引用，但最好不要做为你论文的重要依据。

篇13：英文写作

一、英文简历撰写注意事项: 1.多用无主句 2.年代顺序由近及远 3.单项标题大写 4.纸张一般为16开或A4 二、英文简历的基本内容 1、个人情况：Name, Sex, Date of Birth, Place of Birth, Permaanent Domicile, Nationality, Martial Status, Children, Religion, Party Affiliation, Health, Height, Weight, Present Address, Permanent Address. 2、职业意向:Objective/or: Position Wanted: A position as English Instructor, preferably handling students from the intermediate to the advanced levels 3、资历: QUALIFICATIONS: Bachelor of Arts in Business Administration, major in marketing. 4、经历(Job Experience）:一般逆序写，

英文写作

。 5/86-12/86 University of California Press, Berkeley, California Editorial and Marketing Trainee 5/86-8/86 Wyatt and Duncan Interiors, Berkeley, California Sales Clerk 5. 文化程度(Education):一般逆序写，可以包括主要课程，

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